It is no surprise China is now a world leader in CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machining services as it offers precision manufacturing solutions for all types of industries. In this blog, we will dive into the details regarding the CNC machining services in China, their technological advancement, pricing, and the reason why they are competitive in the international market. This article caters to both business owners looking to partner with dependable manufacturers, as well as industry experts looking to evaluate the capabilities of Chinese machining facilities. I will walk you through the primary features, benefits, and factors to consider while dealing with Chinese CNC machining service providers.
What is CNC and Its Machinery Functions?
A CNC (computer numerical control) machine is a computer-controlled manufacturing machine that shapes, cuts, or fabricates materials like wood, plastic, or metal. It utilizes a multi-axis system with pre-programmed sequence of movements or instructions. CNC Machines can interpret Computer Aided Designs (CAD) and transform them into step-by-step instructions (G code). Its selling points include improved fabrication speed, accuracy, and consistency through mass production with minimization of human work. Other components include the control unit, motors, cutting instruments, workholding tools, etc. CNC Machines are critical in todays manufacturing industry due to its high level of efficiency.
Discovering the Features of CNC Machines
First, CNC machines possess set parameters that describe their performance and the range of their functions. Following are some on the most critical parameters:
Axis Configuration:
3-Axis Machines: Move along X, Y, and Z axes which can also drill and mill flat surfaces.
5-Axis Machines: A rotation on additional A and B axes is incorporated enabling intricate cutting and sculpting.
7 and More Axis Machines: These are for highly specialized industries for extreme precision and complex shapes.
Minimum and Maximum Movement Rotations Per Minute: Generally within 10,000 RPM to over 20,000 RPM for more advanced models.
Increases in spindle rotational speed enhance the quality of the finish and decreases the time taken to cut aluminum or composite materials.
Precision Tolerances:
Depending on the resolution of the CNC machine, it can achieve tolerances as fine as ±0.001 inches (±0.0254 mm). This makes CNC machines appropriate for high-precision manufacturing in aerospace, medical, and automotive industries.
Tool Capacity:
Modern CNC machines may come with tool magazines that contain anywhere from 10 to over 100 tools, allowing for seamless tool interchange for sophisticated machining operations.
Material Compatibility:
CNC Machines can work with a broad range of materials, including metals such as steel, aluminum, and titanium, as well as polymers, composites, and ceramics.
Production Efficiency:
Automated features like robotic arms for material loading allow machines to run 24/7, greatly minimizing downtime and significantly increasing production output.
These parameters not only help in selecting a CNC machine but also demonstrate the versatility and flexibility of such machines in adapting to changing manufacturing needs. Due to advancements in technology like the integration of IoT and A.I., CNC machines are becoming more powerful and versatile.
The Role of CNC Milling in the Machining Process
CNC milling remains one of the fastest and most precise methods of machining today, as it integrates automation and supplants the need for manual work. Its automation sets it apart from manual and semi-automated systems where the individual is heavily relied upon. Below is a list of pertinent aspects associated with CNC milling:
- Aluminum, steel, titanium and other commonly used metals along with ABS and polyethylene plastics and composites can all be machined using CNC milling.
- The properties which determine the hardness of a material and whether it will deform under heat will dictate the type of cutting tools used.
- Milling on CNC machines is typically performed within the tolerances of ±0.001” (±0.025 mm) to ±0.005” (±0.127 mm).
- For work pieces with tighter tolerances, high precision machining setups are able to meet project requirements with greater precision.
- Depending on the CNC tool being used alongside the material, the SFM can be set as low as 100 and as high as 2000.
- As with other forms of machining, the IPT is brought down to between 0.01 and 0.3 inches per tooth to prolong the life of the tool while maintaining sufficient material removal rates.
- End mills, drills, and reamers are just some of the tools supported by CNC milling. Tools of a greater life such as those coated in TiN and TiAlN are also available.
- Complex geometries can be added with the use of multi-axis CNC machines (3-axis, 4-axis, and 5-axis) which also increase operational capabilities.
- The precise surface finishes obtainable with CNC (Computer Numerical Control) milling vary from 125 microinches to as low as 32 microinches depending on the methods utilized.
- The machining of components may be furthered enhanced by polishing or anodizing, which improves the optical quality of the surfaces.
- Automation features like tool changers and adaptive controls reduce the amount of human intervention needed, significantly increasing productivity.
- The transition from design to production is facilitated by the integration with CAD/CAM software.
- The cycle times of parts made with CNC milling are highly dependent on the complexity of the part, with cycle times typically ranging from a few minutes to a few hours for each component.
- The implementation of toolpath strategies, such as high efficiency machining (HEM), not only maintain a certain level of quality, but also improve the speed at which work is done.
Such characteristics demonstrate the superior flexibility and usefulness of CNC milling for the creation of complex components for various industries, including aerospace, automotive, and medical devices.
Advanced CNC Technologies in Modern Manufacturing
Modern milling technologies achieve even greater precision and efficiency through advanced CNC capabilities. For example, the incorporation of 5-axis CNC systems has increased the range of possible geometries, reducing the number of setups required and increasing accuracy. Industry data indicates that 5-axis CNC machines can reduce total cycle times by as much as 30% for complex high precision parts when compared to 3-axis machines. Furthermore, the integration of smart sensors in CNC machines allows for real-time monitoring of tool wear, vibrations, and temperature, enabling predictive maintenance and lowering unplanned downtime by up to 25%. These developments illustrate how advanced CNC technologies are transforming sophisticated processes in manufacturing by improving the quality of products while reducing costs.
How to Choose the Right CNC Machining Service in China?
Analysis of CNC Machining Services Offered in China
It is important to focus on some key components to ensure quality, accuracy, and reliability when selecting a CNC machining service in China. Start with the machining service vendor and assess their technological capabilities in terms of machinery and capacity, precision, and the materials they work with. Check their certifications, like ISO 9001, to ensure that they follow international standards of quality management.
Check what customers are saying about the company’s services and what case studies and testimonials exist to assess the experience and reputation of the company in that particular industry. Evaluate their communication strategy and openness in availing project timelines, cost assessments, and post-production services. Also, ask them about the implementation of their quality control procedures like inspection processes and if they use modern metrology equipment.
Another important factor is balance between cost and quality; however, they must remain affordable. Check how their estimated lead times and production volume, especially for bulk orders, affect their costs. Lastly, check what logistics services they provide to guarantee unrestrained shipping as well as their compliance to international trade regulations. Through research using these parameters, a sophisticated CNC machining service in China can be found.
Important Factors When Choosing a CNC Machining Company
A number of important factors should be considered when choosing a CNC machining company, preferably with supporting evidence and metrics where applicable. They include:
- Availability of machines (e.g. 3-axis, 5-axis, Swiss-type lathes).
- Capabilities with regard to tolerances (e.g. ±0.01mm).
- Expertise with regard to materials (e.g. aluminum, steel alloys, titanium, plastic).
- Part size and weight limits for production.
- Certification standards (e.g. ISO 9001, AS9100, IATF 16949).
- Inspection procedures (e.g. CMM, optical comparators, X-ray testing).
- Testing (e.g. hardness and tensile strength testing).
- Average production lead time for low-volume orders (e.g. 7-10 business days).
- Turnaround time for urgent projects and prototypes.
- Reluctance or flexibility to shorten lead times during peak times.
- Cost breakdown (e.g. material cost, machining time per hour, post-processing).
- Minimum order quantities (MOQ) and quantities for unit price reductions.
- Order charges that are not obvious, such as setup and tool customization fees.
- Offered surface finishing techniques (e.g. anodizing, powder coating, bead blasting).
- Ease of achieving specified roughness (e.g. Ra 0.8 μm or Ra 1.6 μm).
- Deburring and assembly if needed.
- CAD/CAM compatibility (STEP, IGES, DXF).
- Ability to reverse engineer or create digital 3D models.
- Such as automated systems or machines incorporating IoT technology.
- Associations with well-known freight companies.
- Possibilities for express or DDP (Delivered Duty Paid) services).
- Demonstrated history in the control of international shipping law and customs processes.
- Presence of a dedicated account manager or engineer.
- Promptness to answer (for example, less than one day for response time).
- If needs to disable communication obstacles, multilingual support.
Smoothing evaluating all parameters alongside their quantitative values enables streamlined decision-making processes, ensuring the CNC machining partner chosen is responsive and meets the rigid requirements set forth by the firm.
Understanding CNC Machining Quotes and Costs
In order to assess CNC machining quotes and costs accurately, one must first deconstruct several factors that add to the overall cost. Here are some essential components alongside identification and approximate cost ranges to analyze:
The type of material selected highly determines the expenditure. Some of the materials include:
- Aluminum – $5 to $10
- Stainless Steel – $15 to $25
- Titanium – $30 to $50
- The availability of some specialized or rare materials may drive costs higher.
- Machine time is calculated with respect to part complexity and cycle duration. Average rates for CNC machines operate within the following ranges per hour:
- 3-Axis CNC Machines: $50-80
- 5-Axis CNC Machines: $100-150
- Setup costs include tooling, machine programming, and calibration. These usually occur as fixed fees for each project and can range from $100 to $500 depending on the complexity of the part.
Surface finishes, heat treatments, and coatings involve additional steps:
- Anodizing: $10 to $20 per part
- Powder Coating: $15 to $30 per part
- Heat Treatment (e.g. hardening): $50 to $200 a batch depending on material and process.
- Per-unit costs typically decline with higher production volumes due to economies of scale. As an example:
- Batch Production (100+ units): Reduction of up to 30-50% per unit.
Businesses may analyze these components of cost in greater detail to understand provided quotes, considering budget constraints and requirements set forth for the project. Detailed comparisons between manufacturers are critical to achieving the optimal balance of cost and quality.
What Are the Manufacturing Capabilities of CNC Machining in China?
Custom Solutions and Diverse Machined Parts
Precison CNC machining is one of the most developed in the world. It provides service to every industry, from medicine to aviation. Equipment modern fabrication shops utilize, including 5-axis CNC machines, turning centers, and milling tools allow perfect form and shape creation. They enable ultra-precise Chinese machining centers to complex geometries with tight tolerances, often down to ±0.01 mm.
Manufacturers in China provide extensive solutions from supporting prototyping to custom parts fabrication and high-volume batching. In terms of materials, a broad selection of metals can be machined including aluminum, steel, stainless steel, titanium, and a variety of plastics such as ABS, PEEK, and acrylic. In addition, many producers add value by providing heat treatment, anodizing, and surface finishing to create ready-to-use components. Streamlined supply chains and skilled labor ensure competitive costs and quick turnaround times, establishing China as a global hub for CNC machining services.
Applications and Uses of Precision CNC Machining
Custom CNC machining services can cater for a custom industrial or prototype CNC machining project using specific materials. Some of the most frequently used materials are:
Aluminum – As a lightweight and easily machinable metal that is corrosion resistant. It is commonly applied in the automotive and aerospace industry.
Steel – As a CNC machining material, offers great toughness and is mostly used in construction, machinery, and tools.
Stainless Steel – Is extensively applied as a CNC machining material due to its Corrosion resistance and durability. It is frequently used in medical devices, food processing equipment, and marine applications.
Titanium – Stands out as a CNC machining material due to its extreme strength with the lightweight, excellent corrosion resistance, and is ideally suited for use in aerospace, medical implants, and other high-performance applications.
Brass – Works excellently well with maching being easy to conduct electriciry. Used dominantly in electrical parts and fittings.
Copper – A common CNC machining material that is known to possess both high thermal and electrical conductivity. It is frequently used in heat exchangers as well as in the electrical systems.
ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) – Known for use in manufacturing electronic devices and consumer products. Highly impact resistant while lightweight.
PEEK (Polyether Ether Ketone) – Offers high temperature as well chemical resistance and high strength, Widely applied in the aerospace, automative and medical industry.
Acrylic (PMMA) – Acrylic is light in weight and transparently weather resistant. Suitabe for not only optical components but also signage.
Nylon (PA) – An incredibly durable mechanical component which is self lubricating, wear resistant and strong. Hence, extensively used in gears and bearings.
Polycarbonate (PC) – Employed widely in safety equipment and automotive lighting due to being transparent and impact resistant.
Automotive: Parts of the vehicle include an engine block, gear systems, and chassis components.
Medical: Surgical instruments, prosthetic limbs, and advanced dental implants.
Electronics: They are termed as enclosures and incorporate devices such as heat sinks and precision connectors.
Industrial: Housings, hydraulic parts, and tooling.
Consumer Products: Items like home appliances and jewelry hardware which can be specially designed.
It’s clear that each industry utilizes CNC technology differently, however, the versatility of materials, electronics, and even medicine their diverse applications drives home the point on how critical CNC technology is for manufacturing worldwide.
Parts Machined from Sheet Metal and CNC
Sheet metal fabrication and CNC machined parts are known for providing customizable, precise, and durable solutions across various industries. Some common advantages of these processes are:
CNC provides unparalleled accuracy, offering tolerances as fine as ±0.001 inches (±0.025mm) for almost any design and material. These numbers further highlight the importance of precision in structure, aerospace, and medicine. Errors in these fields, even on the smallest of scales, can turn critical when trying to use the end product.
In addition to steel, aluminum, titanium, and various types of brass and copper, a wide range of plastics are also used. Corrosion resistant aluminum alloys such as 6061 and 7075 are known to have amazing strength to weight ratios and are very easy to work with for machining advanced components.
CNC machining demonstrates superior proficiency for low to medium production runs, with faster lead times than conventional manufacturing techniques. Similarly, advanced methods like laser cutting and bending optimize prototype and custom order fabrication for sheet metal, circumventing the necessity for significant investment in tooling.
Components manufactured using wrought and fabricated sheet metals demonstrate exceptional strength. Stainless steel parts, for example, are highly advantageous for use in industrial and marine applications due to their remarkable resistance to wear, corrosion, and harsh conditions.
CNC machining and sheet metal fabrication are integral for the modern manufacturing industry, as these techniques provide precise, reliable, and highly versatile solutions.
Why Opt for CNC Machining Services in China?
Advantages of Employing Chinese CNC Machining Services
CNC machining services in China are economical and do not sacrifice on quality. The ingrown country’s manufacturing infrastructure, along with the availabilty of skilled workers, allows for low costs and fast production timelines. Moreover, numerous Chinese CNC machining companies follow strict quality control policies, guaranteeing accuracy and reliability of the components. In addition, the Chinese providers’ ability to fulfill bulk order requirements makes them more attractive to businesses with high volume production needs.
Quality and Cost Efficient CNC Machining
Through adopting new technologies and streamlining production processes, China’s CNC machining industry has achieved remarkable efficiency. As per industry data, China had nearly 30% share of the global CNC machinery market in 2022 and has witnessed a 6.7% annual growth rate over the past five years. This sustained growth is due to rising demand from several industries like automotive, aerospace and consumer electronics.
Chinese manufacturers are notable for meeting international standards for precision through the production of parts with tolerances as tight as ±0.005 mm. Additionally, economic analysis reports indicate that outsourcing CNC machining to China can generate savings between 20%-30% over North American or European production, depending on the scope and intricacy of the endeavor. These estimates illustrate the strategic benefits that can be attained through China’s CNC machining capabilities when cost-efficient manufacturing projects are planned.
Production Parts and Prototypes: An All-In-One CNC Solution
China’s CNC machining industry has set itself apart with primary and secondary manufacturing services along with prototypes. Their extensive solution set meets diverse manufacturing requirements. CNC machining providers’ facilities are equipped with the latest technology and can claim production with tolerances up to ±0.005 mm and surface finishes of Ra 0.8 µm or better for even the most intricate designs.
In China, 80% of the CNC machining providers offer less than 15 days lead time for prototypes. Some tier I manufacturers offer prototype services in 3-7 days. China’s geography provides significant advantages for mass production as well, with some manufacturers completing batch orders of 100,000 units in under 30 days. These supplieds are already augmented with rigorous quality control including CMM inspections and ISO 9001 certification, ensuring compliance with international standards.
The CNC machining industry in China offers precise, rapid, and low cost production. The combination of these factors makes it ideal for companies looking to enhance productivity, and retain edge over competitors in their industries.
How to Get an Instant Quote for CNC Machined Parts?
Obtaining Quotes using Online CNC Machining Services
In order to obtain a quote for CNC machined parts, follow these steps for optimal efficiency:
Prepare your CAD files in the accepted formats: STEP (.stp/.step), IGES (.iges/.igs), or STL (.stl).
Upload the respective files to the quoting port of the CNC machining service provider. Make sure that the files are complete and devoid of any geometric errors.
Choose the material for your parts from the selection of aluminum, stainless steel, titanium, plastic, or others.
Add information regarding grades or other properties of the materials if applicable.
Outline the dimensions and tolerances along with surface finishing details.
Define the machining processes required to be done like milling, turning, drilling, or tapping based on your part’s design.
Fill out the form for the preferred quantity, whether you need a single prototype or full-scale production.
Indicate your target lead time to manage cost versus speed balance.
Outline any relevant details like assembly, critical dimensions, or inspection certificates that need to be included.
State if there is a need for post-processing services like anodizing or painting.
Check all details entered to ensure that your design and requirements are clear and accurate.
Most platforms provide immediate feedback, either giving the estimated cost or the time needed to prepare a dedicated quote.
Following these steps will help businesses obtain precise quotes tailored to their specific requirements in no time, thus aiding in planning and budgeting.
Factors That Determine CNC Machining Costs
The material choice significantly impacts the CNC machining costs. Aluminum and steel are some of the commonly used metals because they can be machined easily and are fairly priced. However, titanium or high-performance alloys can skyrocket the costs. For example:
Aluminum 6061 costs roughly 3-4 dollars per pound.
Titanium Grade 5 costs roughly 30-40 dollars per pound.
These particular materials affect the rate at which the milling is done, the wear and tear of the tools, and the expense to be incurred, making their hardness, durability, and availability important factors.
Tight tolerances alongside intricate geometrical designs demand precise programming which requires a lot of time. This also requires the use of advanced tooling and slower cutting speeds.
It is estimated that complex parts can increase the machining time by about 30-50%.
Due to the sophisticated equipment and skill needed, 5-axis machining is typically more expensive than 3-axis. Multi-axis (or 5-axis) machining is approximately 20%-40% more expensive than their 3-axis counterparts.
Smaller batch sizes may incur a greater per-unit cost as a result of setup time and lesser economies of scale. On the other hand, larger production runs tend to allocate setup costs over a greater number of units, decreasing the per-part cost.
A batch of 10 units may be 50% to 70% more costly on a per-unit basis than a batch of 1,000 units.
Iadditional processes such as anodizing, polishing, or heat treatment comes with different costs. For example:
Anodizing’s typical expense is $0.08 – $0.15 per square inch.
Heat treatment costs range from $50-$200 per batch, based on the method used and size of the part.
Because of scheduling these services, expedited machining is expected to come with added fees as a result of scheduled priority attention and possible overtime work.
Depending on how soon the work is required, there might be a 25% to 100% increase in costs associated with rush orders.
Taking all of these factors into consideration and strategically assessing design choices, it is possible for businesses to optimize CNC machining processes and achieve economical production while upholding quality.
Custom Parts and Manufacturing Solutions
There is a number of considerations which factors to the total estimate pricing for CNC machining services. Here, we will explain these factors in greater detail.
Costs for materials differ dramatically, but some common materials are priced at:
Aluminum (6061): 3 – 5 per pound
Stainless Steel (304): 10 – 15 per pound
Titanium (Grade 5): 30 – 50 per pound
Due to the sourcing and complexity of machining specialized materials or composites, they may be significantly more expensive.
Machining time and costs can further increase because of the added geometry, greater than 3 axis features, high tolerances, and multi-axis requirements:
Single feature multi-axis machining: adds 10-50% to production costs
Extreme tolerance requirement (<0.01 mm): enhances costs up to 20-40%.
Economies of scale efficiency:
Smaller Batches (1-10 parts): High expense per unit of due to setup and tooling duration
Medium Batches (50-100 pieces): Setup cost is spread across parts resulting in decreased per unit costs.
Large Batches (500+ pieces): Optimized cost efficacy reached.
Different finishing and post processing option choices impact pricing:
Standard finish (as machined): Included in base cost
Polished or brushed finish: Adds 5-20 per part.
Anodizing, plating, or powder coating: $50-$200 per batch based on size and material of parts.
Default lead times cause baseline costs.
Typically, the following added costs will apply for faster processing:
25-50% increase in cost for 2-3 day turnaround.
Up to 100% increase in cost for same-day or next-day delivery.
With a deep analysis and understanding of such factors, manufacturers can make rational decisions for optimizing a project centered around CNC machining. Understanding these factors can greatly reduce expenses without diminishing the value or functionality of the product.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q: What are the benefits of choosing China CNC machining services?
A: When it comes to China CNC machining services, the benefits include low costs, availability of advanced CNC machine tools, and a broad range of offered machining services. Additionally, the industry is well-known for high-quality production as well as the precision CNC machining services for both metal and plastic parts.
Q: How do I select the best CNC machining company in China?
A: There are several things to consider when selecting the best CNC machining company in China. These include: their experience, popularity, cnc parts quality, the variety of offered cnc machining materials, and reputation on precision machined parts. Customer feedback coupled with quality attestations is important because it can provide more information concerning the reliability of the company.
Q: What types of CNC machining materials are commonly used in China?
A: China commonly utilizes aluminum, steel, brass, and certain plastic components as CNC machining materials. Depending on the nature of the manufacturing process and the end-product desired, the material selection would differ.
Q: Do the China CNC machining services have the capacity to produce prototypes at a rapid pace?
A: China CNC machining services do have the capacity for rapid prototype production and several other CNC machining services offer it as a specialty. They have high precision cnc machine tools and cnc manufacturing technologies that allow for production of prototypes and production pieces in record time.
Q: How does CNC lathe differ from CNC milling machines?
A: Rotary cutters are used in CNC milling machines to remove material from workpieces which facilitates the creation of complex shapes and features. While the lathe type rotates the workpiece and positions a stationary cutting tool which is best suited for symmetrical and cylindrical pieces, both tools are very important in any machine shop.
Q: What kind of finishing services can be learned through China CNC machining companies?
A: Some of the finishing services offered by China CNC machining companies include anodizing, painting, polishing, and powder coating. These services add value and increase the surface protection of the CNC parts, thereby qualifying as value adding services in quality CNC machining.
Q: What measures do CNC machining manufacturers in China put in place to ensure a high quality standard is always met?
A: By employing skilled experts alongside advanced cnc machine tools and maintaining quality control throughout the entire production process, CNC machining manufacturers in China are able to meet precise high-quality standards. Frequent inspections and tests are done to ensure precision and uniformity throughout all the final outputs.
Q: Where does sheet metal fabrication fall in China CNC machining services?
A: Sheet metal fabrication forms an essential part of China CNC machining services. This includes cutting, bending, and assembling of metal sheets to form sophisticated and strong metal parts. This procedure proves useful to a great number of industries needing custom metal components and extends the options available in CNC manufacturing solutions.
Q: Are there specialized CNC machining companies in China for specific industries?
A: Yes, there are specialized CNC machining companies in China catering to various industries, including automotive, aerospace, electronics, and medical. These companies offer tailored machining solutions, using their knowledge with advanced technologies to address the requirements of each industry.
Reference Sources
- Research on multi-objective optimization of decision scheme in CNC manufacturing process
- Authors: Zian Liu et al.
- Publication Date: November 5, 2020
- Summary:
- This study addresses the optimization of decision schemes in CNC manufacturing processes, focusing on three main objectives: improving processing quality (reducing surface roughness), enhancing milling efficiency, and minimizing tool wear costs.
- The authors established objective functions for cutting surface integrity, cutting efficiency, and tool wear, and employed a non-dominant sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) for optimization.
- Key findings indicate that the NSGA-II model outperforms traditional genetic algorithms (GA) in search capabilities, achieving a 42.7% increase in processing efficiency, a 25% reduction in tool costs, and a 21.8% improvement in workpiece quality(Liu et al., 2020, pp. 115681M-115681M – 8).
- Research on integrated manufacturing technology of CNC machine tool and 3D printing
- Author: Sheng Lu
- Publication Date: 2021
- Summary:
- This paper explores the integration of CNC machine tools with 3D printing technology to enhance industrial production levels in China.
- The study highlights the advantages and disadvantages of both processing methods and discusses how their combination can lead to improved manufacturing capabilities(Lu, 2021).
- Electrical control and fault diagnosis of CNC machine tool feed shaft
- Authors: Guodong Wang et al.
- Publication Date: March 15, 2024
- Summary:
- This research focuses on the electrical control systems of CNC machine tools, particularly the feed shaft, which is critical for maintaining overall equipment quality.
- The paper reviews common faults in CNC machine motors and provides diagnostic solutions, emphasizing the importance of electrical control in enhancing the performance and reliability of CNC machinery(Wang et al., 2024, pp. 130751J-130751J – 11).
